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Units 6 Outline |
History 2223 US
History II |
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Promise
and Frustration, the 1960s. Politics: Kennedy and Johnson Kennedy --The
promise of style, youth, and technique. 1960
Election: --42
when announced candidacy, picked up on the youthful inclination to
activism--in direct contrast to grandfatherly Ike. --Use
of television to push his youthful good looks. --Democratic
convention, won on first ballot.
Offered VP to Johnson, assuming he would turn it down (although some
claim that he wanted him to shore up southern votes.). New
Frontier- "a
frontier of unknown opportunities and perils--a frontier of unfulfilled hopes
and threats." --Courted
Black vote--moved to get MLK freed from prison, and then promoted their
efforts. Election
-- won by 118,000 votes. If votes for
Byrd had gone to Nixon, he would have won popular votes, but still lost
electoral college.—Just like our recent election! "Ask
not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country.” Thousand
Days JFK
an active and aggressive president.
But actual results were few. --Surrounded
himself with "best and brightest."--including conservatives and his
brother as Atty. General. Foreign
policy --more
containment of communism and repression of third world governments. --Replaced
massive retaliation with "flexible response" to unify anti-communism
and third world control. --massive
renewal of arms race. Bay
of Pigs Kennedy
rather paranoid about Cuba, though having missiles poised 90 miles away was
unacceptable politically and psychologically. --CIA
had already begun plans to take Castro out under IKE. When the plan was posed to Kennedy, he
felt like he could not turn back from it.
--Advisors
led Kennedy to believe that success was guaranteed and that the Cuban people
would rise up in arms against Castro.(wrong!) April
17, 1961 invasion force met by 200,000 members of Castro's militia. --Kennedy
put a spin on the affair and the American people believed that Castro was the
bad guy. Operation
Mongoose --begun
in 1961, a wacky set of schemes to kill Castro or at least get him out of
office. --CIA
even turned to Mafia for assistance--they wanted Castro out as well. --Castro
learned about all of the plans to take him out and turned to Khrushchev for
help--agreed to send defensive nuclear weapons to Cuba. Latin
America (except Cuba) Alliance
for Progress. --Based
on Marshall Plan, offered massive funds to "developing
countries"--essentially modernization of the variety that led to
Mexican Revolution in first 2 decades of 20th century. pledged
to wipe out illiteracy, hunger, disease in Western Hemisphere. --Over
$10 billion by 1968 in Fed. money --pledged
to advance social and political reform. BUT
--Latin America was not Europe. The
Marshall plan had willing participants, Latin America was justifiably skeptical
and resisted (while taking the money). --During
Alliance for Progress, the US was involved in the internal affairs of Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Colombia, Mexico, Argentina, Guatemala,
Honduras, Haiti, and Chile--either with force or economic means. Peace
Corps-- established
to spread the gospel of democracy world-wide--Kennedy's most enduring
legacy--though they were all surprised that the countries receiving aid did
not rush to the American political system. Anti-Communism Berlin--showdown
with Khrushchev over his threat to treat with East Germany separately. Such would squeeze off West Berlin and
hand Kennedy a "loss" of China proportions. --Kennedy
postured for armed response--including nuclear strikes. Raised draft quotas
and asked for huge defense $ from congress. --East
Germans ended debate by building Berlin Wall to stem tide of migration to the
West. Cuban
Missile Crisis --October
1962, brought the US and USSR to brink of nuclear war. Defense
Dept. got photos showing Soviet missile sites in Cuba (remember Operation
Mongoose?). --Though
Soviets claimed it was defensive only, Kennedy began posturing once again for
war, even though the US had missiles already aimed at the Soviet Union. --Kennedy’s
advisors told him he could attack, risking Soviet involvement, or he could
'quarantine" Cuba by stopping ship trying to portage. --Kennedy
accepted blockade, and went on television to inform the American people of
the danger. --Ultimately,
Khrushchev "blinked" and withdrew missiles--while US quietly did
the same in Greece and Turkey --Significance--Americans
realized that Nuclear war was a reality, and demanded safeguards against
it. Administration also backed off of
bellicose language.--never been so close since. Domestic
Policies --Initially
a economic slump. Conservative
advisors kept Kennedy away from drastic measures that would have attempted to
redistribute wealth. Essentially
reverted back to tax twisting to stimulate business. --Lowering
taxes did stimulate the economy, but lower income families did not share in
the upswing. Environment 1962
Rachel Carson, Silent Spring--warned the public about the rampant use
of chemicals in society--Launched the modern environmental movement. Assassination--Nov.
21, 1963 Warren
Commission--Oswald lone gunman. Camelot-- In
the end, Kennedy was a member of the consensus and containment generation
that he matured under. Only moved
when prodded. Lyndon
B. Johnson Background: --New
Dealer who changed depending on political expediency--a politician. US senator. --VP
candidate to deliver South-- and he did. Civil
Rights Act of 1964 --Begun
by Kennedy, southerners said the vote was in tribute to him (had to justify
it back home). 1964
Election. --Runs
against Barry Goldwater--Beginning of the New Right. Goldwater
scared the US in 1964, but he ushered in new era of Republican success--law
and order, etc... that would see republicans in the Whitehouse 20 of the next
24 years. Dem.
adds made light of Golwater's slogan "In your heart, you know he's
right." Dems said, "In your
heart, you know he might."--referring to nuclear war. --Johnson
won in landslide with 60.7% of popular vote, and 486 to 52 electoral votes. Great
Society 1. To End racial discrimination 2. Equal opportunity for all classes. 3. Elimination of poverty and poor health
care. With
such lofty goals, disappointment inevitable. Johnson
greatly increased federal expenditures and bureaucracy.--New Deal like. War
on Poverty --Medicare
and Medicaid Health insurance for old and poor. --Food
Stamp program --Head
Start Program --Job
Corps, like the CCC. --Cabinet
level Housing and Urban Development position --Foreign
Policy Vietnam! --in
Latin America, Johnson continued Alliance for Progress by appointing a
pro-business head who changed the focus to economic growth rather than
democracy. --1965
Johnson sends troops to the Dominican Republic Ultimately,
foreign policy undid LBJ. --The
Overt use of force in Latin America, and the escalation in Vietnam spelled
his demise. Vietnam
and white backlash doomed Great Society and LBJ. The
disenchantment on the left met the fear of the right. Middle class America wanted Law and order
by 1968 to upend the counterculture and the seeming loss of American values. Civil
Rights Background Radical
Reconstruction--South divided up into 5 military districts. allowed
blacks to be elected (though mainly in black majority districts) Hiram
Revels--1st black US senator from MS.
excellent. All
Republican. White--Democratic
Reaction. Began
using legal and extra legal methods to disfranchise blacks. "Black
Codes". Shoestring
District along delta to contain black vote. gerrymandering--
to dilute black vote By
1877, Rep out of south--didn't need black vote. Result--increased
racism. WWII- Blacks came home to increased racism and
separation. Whites beginning to
rally. Truman "Blueprint to end Alienation". 1. Fed. anti lynching bill. 2. integration of armed forces and DC 3. Elimination of Poll tax. 4. End of discrimination in interstate
commerce. Ran
South away from Dem Party. began. Dixiecrats--took
4 states. use of rebel flag for first
time. New
Tactics. Combine
Race baiting and Red Baiting. 1950
in NC, Frank Porter Graham vs. Willis Smith for congress. Graham
overwhelming favorite.. young staff member on Smith's team decided to use new tactic. called graham a communist and said he supported race
mixture. Staff member...young Jesse Helms. Black
Monday--Brown Case, 1954. Vague. --Intgrate
"with all deliberate Speed" South
settled into Quiet Non Compliance.
allow courts to hear all individual cases
and their appeals--lost entire generation.
Not until 1982 that first integrated class
graduated in Ms. Massive
Resistance in Congress and South. July
1954...White Citizens Council in Indianola MS. "Middle
Class Clan" used economic
tactics to scare whites and blacks. "Economic
Intimidation". Explain. MISSISSIPPI
SOVEREIGNTY COMMISSION
1956-1973. Worked
with Citizen's council and Federal Govt. Enacted
"to perform any and all acts and things deemed necessary and proper to protect the sovereignty of the state of
Mississippi and her sister states from encroachment
thereon by the federal govt."
Compare to Goldwaters 1964 acceptance
speech...."I would remind you that extremism in the defense of liberty
is no vice." Info
on 250 organizations and 10,000 people.
"Many of these work for or represent subversive, militant, or
revolutionary groups."---Erle Johnston, JR. Examples
of commission activity......... National
Movement first
period 1954-1964 --Passive
Resistance Organizations: --NAACP --SNCC
(Student Non-Violent Coordinating committee) --CORE
(Congress on Racial Equality) Episodes 1955--Montgomery,
AL bus boycott--Rosa Parks 1957--Federal
troops reluctantly sent to Little Rock to desegregate school 1960--Sit-in
in Greensboro, NC launches new tactic 1962--James
Meredith at Ole Miss. 1963--March
on Washington, MLK and several hundred thousand of his friends. Mississippi
Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP).1964 --Result
of Freedom Summer...largely pushed by Student Nonviolent Coordinating
Committee (SNCC) To Include blacks in to political mix. To challenge
Mississippi Democratic delegation at Atlantic City convention--as the
official, legally constituted
Democratic Party. --By
August, door to door petitions brought in 80,000 to the MFDP--over 1000
arrested. (in just three months). --Began
lining up states to support challenge President
Johnson supported regular party (afraid to lose vote--did anyway). Mississippi
Dem party rejected national platform and civil rights MFDP
selected delegates to convention, incl Fannie Lou Hamer and Rev. Ed King. Mississippi
outlawed the MFDP and arrested key leaders (could cause irreparable damage to state) just days before
convention. labeled MFDP
"Communist Organization." Hamer
spoke to national TV very moving, Johnson had networks pull off to cover him. Compromise: two MFDP "delegates at large"
allowed on floor; MS Dem party had to
pledge allegiance to National Party.
Whites walked out MFDP
did not accept compromise, walked
onto floor with borrowed passes and were
thrown out (by Johnson's people). But
success....... Second
Period 1964- --Rise
of militancy: tired of
waiting--Malcolm X and the Black Panthers 1964-1968
Race riots in Major cities across nation 1965--Malcolm
X assassinated 1968--
MLK and Robert Kennedy assassinated Legislation: --1954
Brown vs. the Board of Education--Topeka Kansas. Outlaws racial segregation in public schools. --1957--Civil
Rights Act establishes Civil Rights Commission and Civil Rights Division of
Justice Dept. --1964
--24th amendment bans poll tax as requirement for voting in federal
elections. --Civil
Rights Act outlaws discrimination in public accommodations, schools, and
employment --1965
--Voting Rights Act provides federal supervision of voter registration. --1968
--Open Housing Law prohibits discrimination in sale or rental of housing. Viet
Nam Failure
to grasp the intensity of revolutionary nationalism in SE Asia led to futile
attempts to crate a noncommunist regime in the southern half of Vietnam. --Vietnam
divided at 17th parallel after WWII. Beginning
in 1945 with attempt to aid French colonial powers against nationalist--and
the US thought, communist--Vietnamese.
From Truman, to Eisenhower, to Kennedy, to Johnson, and finally Nixon,
American Presidents escalated the conflict so slowly that no one realized the
severity until we were in a full-blown war. US
quickly took on most of the burden in fighting for France's colonial
power--and in trying to contain communism.--By 1954 US paying for 70% of
battle. --Despite
US money and "advisors" Ho Chi Minh's forces overran the French
military position at Dinbienphu on May 7, 1954. US
set up Ngo Dinh Diem as prime minister in south and convinced him to hold off
on reunification vote as dictated in Geneva Charter--Knew that northern
forces would probably carry election--feared "losing" Vietnam. Domino
Theory--Eisenhower said that if Indochina fell to communism, the rest
of SE Asia would topple like dominoes (and it wouldn't be long before they
would begin toppling in our own hemisphere). --Americans
bought domino theory and later it was used to support escalation of troops. Though
Diem executed thousands of supposed enemies, the US embraced him--even
Kennedy. --December
1960 what was left of northern Vietminh established the National Front for
the Liberation of Vietnam (NLF) and began guerilla attacks in South. NLF became known as Vietcong took over
half of territory in south VN. And
when Kennedy became president, he decided to up the ante. Said that
Eisenhower had not helped Diem enough.
--After
Bay of Pigs, Kennedy needed a victory over Communism and he decided to do it
in SE ASIA. --his
staff decided to use Vietnam as a laboratory to work on anti-communist
tactics, and to establish a new economic system to showcase modernization and
development. --Kennedy
authorized the spending of $260 million, and sent in hundreds of
"advisors" to train south. --Sent
special forces--or Green Berets as well. --Sent
the CIA to make commando raids 1961--3205
advisors 1962--9000
advisors. --November
2, 1963, Diem murdered while US officials did nothing. replaced by military leader Duong Van
Minh. --Kennedy killed three weeks later and Johnson inherited the mess begun
by JFK. --Johnson
inherited 16,000 "advisers" who increasingly took on more of the burden. --And
with indiscriminate bombing and napalm, friendlies became enemies. Gulf
of Tonkin Resolution --Based
on the attack of the Maddox (in enemy waters) and the C. Turner Joy
(which wasn't attacked at all), congress gave the president broad powers to
"prevent further aggression."
--No
time limit was placed on the resolution, and Johnson would later use it to
escalate the war. 1965--America's
War. --Johnson
wanted to break the Vietcong without bringing the Chinese into the fray--a
"limited war". Proved
impossible. Operation
Rolling Thunder --Feb.
1965, a sustained bombing campaign against the north. --authorized
100,000 troops. --massive
bombing, it was hoped (so said the military advisors) would break the north's
spirit and bolster the south. --Air
attacks did not work, as the jungle allowed a series of supply trails.--and
cost of bombing reached $2.5 billion a year. --Advisors
called for more air bombing and the introduction of ground troops. Johnson feared China and the Soviet Union
(remember Korea). --Ultimately
ground war was the only way. Ground
War. --By
1967 535,000 troops in Vietnam still could not contain the NLF using
conventional war tactics. Guerilla
war much different. --Body
Count General
Westmoreland supported attrition, so the battles moved away from territory to
kills. "Search and Destroy." Vietcong
adapted to the US tactics well and turned them against them. --booby
traps made from tons of unexploded bombs accounted for 17% of US
casualties in 1967. The
US was steadily losing the support of those they supposedly fought for. 1967
Secret talks ended because the military refused to quit bombing as Johnson
said they would. General
Westmoreland, Commander of armed forces in Vietnam, returns to the US
claiming that victory is imminent.
BUT, Tet
Offensive --jan.
1968. --On
Tet, VN New Year, 19 VC commandos blasted the US embassy in Saigon, and took
on the marines. Also attacked
airport, presidential palace, and south Vietnamese army headquarters. --For
the first time, Americans realized because of the publicized Tet Offensive,
that victory was not imminent, as Westmoreland said previously. --US
public opinion turned drastically. --When
Westmoreland asked for 206,000 more troops, Johnson declined. March
31, 1968 Johnson went on Television to tell the American people that he would
implement a partial bombing halt, begin peace treaty negotiations, AND that
he would not run for office again. Nixon
elected in 1968. --Nixon
promised "peace with honor" --Determined
not to end up like Johnson, Nixon vowed to end the war quickly, but with
"honor." --Three
goals:--That conflicted. 1. reduce public attention to Vietnam. 2. negotiate a face-saving peace. 3. bolster military capacity of Saigon in the
south. Vietnamization --turn
more of the fighting over to the south--to take pressure off at home. --At
the same time, Nixon sought to defeat anti-war movement with covert
operations, blackmail, wiretaps, intimidation, etc... The
Pentagon Papers --First
published June 13, 1971--it chronicled in 47 volumes of History of US
Decision-making Process on Vietnam, 1945-1967. --Leaked
to the press by Daniel Ellsberg, a disillusioned Defense Dept. official. --established
the chain of deceit from the govt. about Vietnam. --As
a result, "the Plumbers" were assembled by John Ehrlichman to stop
leaks using any means necessary. --The
Plumbers broke into Ellsberg's Psychiatrist's office to get info that would
hurt him. --Plumbers,
including G. Gordon Liddy planned the Watergate break-in. Paris
Peace Agreement October
1972, just before the elections, a deal hammered out. But, South Vietnam leaders refused to sign
fearing a US pullout, so it wasn't final until Nixon sent a message to both
sides by implementing the heaviest bombing of the entire war. --December
22 and for the next 2 weeks, B-52s dropped 36,000 tons of bombs and killed
1,600 civilians. --January
27, 1973 cease fire signed.--US would pull out within 60 days in return for
the safe return of all POWs. 1972
Election --Committee
to Reelect the President (CREEP) established to subvert the opposition. --First
Target, Edmund Muskie--forged letter to New Hampshire paper accused him of
being a racist--lost it in front of the newspaper that ran the letter and
editorial, and Americans thought he was weak--drops out. --Enemy
list numbered over 100 and it was CREEP's job to get them. --Had
the IRS investigate 4,300 people, and 1,000 groups. --Dirty
Money. Funds kept in safety deposit
boxes were illegal donations expected to buy Whitehouse favors, included
substantial donation from H. Ross Perot. G
Gordon Liddy proposed to kidnap Democratic Party officials, and take pictures
of them with prostitutes. The alternative became Watergate. In
November, Nixon trounced McGovern taking 49 states (shows that desperate
measures were unnecessary). Watergate June
17, 1972 5 CREEP employees caught in the Watergate Hotel offices of the
Democratic National Committee trying to repair bugs in the office. --Cover
up. --Fear
that the money trail would lead back to CREEP and Nixon. Initially,
Grand Jury indicts Liddy, and 5 men arrested, but refuses to charge anyone
else. Cover up appeared to work. Watergate
Hearings May
1973 nationally televised allowed the public to see for the first time what
had really happened. -Vice
President Agnew resigns in scandal, and Minority Leader Gerald Ford elevated
to V.P. --When
Nixon refused to release the Watergate tapes, public opinion turned on
him. And when he did release them,
there was a substantial gap in one of the recordings from a meeting that he
told his advisors to counterattack on Watergate. --In
late July 1974 three articles of impeachment passed, and Nixon was to stand
impeachment trial (Andrew Johnson in 1868 only other pres. to be impeached
until Clinton). --August
9, 1974 Nixon Resigns Back to the U.S. History II Page |
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